Mountain Man James P. Beckwourth's Congressional Testimony on the Sand Creek Massacre
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James Pierson Beckwourth (1798-1866)
About 62 years old
(Note that "Beckwith", sometimes used, is stated as James Pierson's surname in these proceedings. However, his autobiography and signature in an early lead mining pay record used "Beckwourth"; he is credited with discovering "Beckwourth Pass" in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and his then-seven siblings, who would become 12, 22 slaves, mother, who was his father's slave, and father moved to "Beckwourth's Settlement" from Virginia. His father, a Revolutionary War major, gave him $500 when he left home to begin his adventures as a mountaineer, fur trader, trapper, explorer and a chief of the Crow (Sparrowhawk) Indians.)
While a reporter at the Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, in New York, I covered education. In one story, parents of 12- to 14-year-olds researched and wrote a black history supplement for their children's middle school. Jim's name was listed as one of the American West's explorers. I researched his life for three years and spent two writing Journey to Honor, his fictionalized biography.
On my drive from Rochester to Long Beach, California, I stopped in Washington, D.C. At the Library of Congress, I found Jim's Congressional testimony on the Sand Creek Massacre and made a copy of it, which I have transcribed here.
James Beckwourth was a scout to Sand Creek for the U.S. Army. "If I had not come, the white chief would have hung me", he later testified that he had explained to warriors.
The Sand Creek Massacre is one of the most tragic events in America's history and marked a major turning point in the course of relations between native Americans and others, according to The Conservation Fund, which over the course of more than 20 years, built relationships with landowners to purchase land within an authorized Congressional boundary and transfer it to the National Park Service "to protect, interpret and memorialize the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site", which was opened to the public in 2007.
The mountain man testified at a Congressional hearing that on November 29, 1864, "a great many were killed, but I cannot guess within a hundred how many were killed. . . There were all sexes, warriors, women, and children, and all ages, from one week old up to eighty years. . . About two-thirds, as near as I saw (were women and children)."
About 450 Southern Cheyenne following Black Kettle and 40 Southern Arapahoes under Left Hand, camped at Sand Creek, Colorado, according to the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Preservation Act of 1998. About dawn, Colonel John M. Chivington's Colorado Volunteers (nearly 700), along with 125 regular army troops, attacked the unsuspecting villagers.
These Plains Indians thought themselves under U.S. Army protection, but the deaths of more than 200 Indians, and the horrible mutilation of many of their bodies, proved otherwise.
While Chivington's troops returned to a heroes' welcome in Denver, the Sand Creek Massacre was soon recognized as a national disgrace, according to the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Preservation Act of 1998.
The incident was investigated and condemned by two congressional committees and a military commission. More recently, Colorado's political leaders made formal apologies on behalf of agents of government and rescinded 1864 proclamations by then-Governor John Evans which authorized killing of Native Americans in Colorado territory. These proclamations had remained on the books for more than 150 years prior to recission in 2021.
On September 28, 1864, two months before the Sand Creek Massacre, Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle (seated 3rd from left) who raised a large U.S. flag, with a white flag of truce attached to it, on a long pole outside of his lodge, but was fired on nonetheless, attended a peace council with Governor Evans and Colonel John M. Chivington, commander of the District of Colorado, at Camp Weld, on the outskirts of Denver. (Unknown photographer)
Front row, kneeling (left to right): Major Edward W. Wynkoop, commander at Fort Lyon and later agent for the Cheyennes and Arapahoes; Captain Silas S. Soule, provost marshal, later murdered in Denver. Middle row, seated (left to right): White Antelope (or perhaps White Wolf); Bull Bear; Black Kettle; One Eye; Natame (Arapaho). Back row, standing (left to right): Colorado militiaman: unknown civilian; John H. Smith (interpreter): Heap of Buffalo (Arapaho); Neva (Arapaho); unknown civilian; sentry. Another identification states that Neva is seated on the left and the Indian next to Smith is White Wolf (Cheyenne). From State Historical Society of Colorado Library in Plains Indian raiders: the final phases of warfare from the Arkansas to the Red River, by Wilbur Sturtevant Nye, University of Oklahoma (1968).
TWENTY-SECOND DAY.
March 6, 1865.
Commission met pursuant to adjournment. Present, all members and recorder.
Proceedings of yesterday read and approved with the following amendments . . .
James P. Beckwith called in by the commission to give evidence.
J. M. Chivington respectfully asks that the witness, James P. Beckwith, may be interrogated as to his belief in the existence of God, who rewards good and punished evil, before he is sworn.
By Commission:
Question. James P. Beckwith, do you believe in the existence of a Supreme Being, of a God, by whom truth is enjoined and falsehood punished, and do you consider the form of administering an oath as binding upon your conscience?
Answer. I do.
The oath being administered to law, in presence of J. M. Chivington, late colonel first Colorado cavalry, James P. Beckwith testified as follows;
Question. Your full name, age and residence?
Answer. James Pierson Beckwith. I reside in this city at present. I am in my 69th year.
Question. How long have you resided in what is now known as Colorado Territory?
Answer. Off and on for forty-nine years. Not in this Territory that long.
Question. Did you accompany Colonel Chivington's command to Sand creek (cq) last November?
Answer. Yes. I started with Colonel Shoup as guide and interpreter: afterwards Colonel
Chivington overtook us, and, I think, assumed command.
Question. Were you present at Sand creek at the time of the attack upon Black Kettle's camp, by Colonel Chivington?
Answer. Yes, I was present.
Question. Previous to the attack on Black Kettle's village, did you hear Colonel Chivington give any orders or make any remarks to his command?
Answer. Yes.
Question. What orders did he give, and what remarks did he make to his command?
Answer. His remark, when he halted us in the middle of Sand creek, was this: "Men, strip for action." He also said, "I don't tell you to kill all ages and sex, but look back on the plains of the Platte, where your mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters have been slain, and their blood saturating the sands on the Platte."
Question. How many lodges did the village of Black Kettle contain at the time of the attack?
Answer. I can't tell. I did not count them.
Question. State as near as you can the number of lodges at the time of the attack?
Answer. From eighty to one hundred, as near as I could guess from the look of them. I did not count them.
Question. State as near as you can of what tribes Black Kettle's camp was composed?
Answer. Of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes.
Question. Are you acquainted with the manners and customs of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes?
Answer. Perfectly.
Question. State as nearly as you can the number of Indians of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes usually assigned to each lodge in their winter camps.
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question because it does not appear that the witness has any knowledge of the subject-matter of the inquiry, and because he is not asked to give his knowledge, but merely to state as nearly as he can. A person having no knowledge of the subject might answer the question truthfully, and yet the answer would be of no value as testimony.
Objection overruled.)
Answer. I could not, as I have not been with them for the last twelve or fourteen years. I mean I have done no business or trading with them for that length of time.
Question. During the last fourteen years have you passed through the Cheyennes or Arapahoes villages?
Answer. Yes. Have been in them frequently since.
Question. Have you any acquaintances with the chiefs of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes, and their people?
Answer. Yes.
Question. Describe an Indian lodge.
Answer. They are generally made of dressed buffalo skins., They are made in such a way that I cannot give the dimensions of them. They are made similar to the round tents. Have poles on the inside of the lodge, and two poles on the outside to turn the two wings of the lodge, to turn the smoke.
Question. State as nearly as you can the number of Indians in the village of Black Kettle at the time of the attack.
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question for the reason that it does not appear that the witness has any knowledge of the subject-matter of the inquiry.
Objection sustained.)
Question. Were there any Indians in the camp of Black Kettle at the time of the attack? If so, state how many.
Answer. Yes, there were Indians in the camp, but how many it is impossible for me to say.
Question. At what time in the morning did the attack on Black Kettle commence?
Answer. A little after sunrise.
Question. At what time was the attack over?
Answer. I think it was between 2 and 3 p. m. when they ceased firing. I had not the time of day with me, but guess it was about that time.
Question. Were any Indians killed? If so, state how many.
Answer. It is impossible for me to say how many were killed. A great many were killed, but I cannot guess within a hundred how many were killed.
Question. Were those Indians killed on Sand creek, warriors?
Answer. There were all sexes, warriors, women, and children, and all ages, from one week old up to eighty years.
Question. What proportion of those killed were women and children?
Answer. About two-thirds, as near as I saw.
Question. Were any of the Indians killed at Sand creek scalped, and otherwise mutilated?
Answer: They were scalped; that I know of. White Antelope was the only one I saw that was otherwise mutilated.
Question. Did the Indians at Sand creek, at the time of the attack, form in line of battle to resist Colonel Chivington's command?
Answer. Not until they had been run out of the village.
Question. What did the Indians do at the time of the attack upon them by Colonel Chivington?
Answer. They run out of the village, and formed to fight until the shells were thrown among them, and they broke and fought all over the country.
Colonel John Chivington leading the United States cavalry's massacre of Chief Black Kettle and a village of friendly Native Americans at Sand Creek (Hand-colored woodcut of a 19th-century illustration from BBC Bitesize)
Commission adjourned until 2 p. m. this day.
Two p. m.--Commission met pursuant to adjournment. Present, all members and recorder.
Examination of James P. Beckwith, by the commission, in presence of J. M. Chivington, late colonel, &c., continued:
Question. Did any of the Indians make an attempt to reach Colonel Chivington's command at the time of the attack?
Answer. Yes, one Indian.
Question. Do you know his name? If so, state it, and what he did.
Answer. The name he went by with the Indians was Spotted Antelope, and by the whites, White Antelope. He came running out to meet the command at the time the battle commenced, holding up his hands and saying, "Stop! Stop!" He spoke it in as plain English as I can. He stopped and folded his arms until shot down. I don't know whether the colonels heard it or not, as there was such a whooping and hallooing that it was hard to hear what was said.
Question. Was any attention paid to White Antelope as he advanced towards Colonel Chivington's command?
Answer. None, only to shoot him, as I saw.
Question. Did White Antelope have anything in his hand as he advanced towards the command?
Answer. Nothing that I saw.
Question. How near Colonel Chivington's command was White Antelope shot down?
Answer. As near as I can guess, fifteen or twenty steps.
Question. Was White Antelope scalped and otherwise mutilated?
Answer. Yes, both.
Question. Did you see any person engaged in scalping White Antelope?
Answer. I did not. I saw him, though, after this had been done.
Question. State if any others advanced towards the command at the time of the attack.
Answer. Mr. Smith, the United States interpreter, was the only one I saw.
Question. What was done as Mr. Smith advanced towards the command?
Answer. As close as I recollect I think he spoke to Colonel Chivington, and I cannot recollect what he said. I think Colonel Chivington told him to jump on the artillery carriage, and remain there, which he obeyed as sure as you are born.
Question. Did any of Colonel Chivington's command fire upon John Smith?
Answer. Not that I saw. The reports were so, but I did not see anybody fire at him.
Question. Did you see any of Colonel Chivington's command in the act of scalping the Indians at Sand creek?
Answer. I did. I saw; I saw several men scalping, but I know not their names; But there is only one man I know who scalped an Indian I killed myself.
Question. Did you see any officer of Colonel Chivington's command scalping the Indians at Sand creek?
Answer. No.
Question. Did any officer or officers of Colonel Chivington's command make any effort to s to prevent scalping or mutilating of the dead at Sand creek?
Answer. None that I saw or heard. I only saw White Antelope who had been mutilated otherwise than by scalping.
Question. Did Colonel Chivington's command take any prisoners? If so, state what was done with them.
Answer. The prisoners taken was one woman rescued by Charley Antoby, turned over to me, and Colonel William Bent's son Charles (half-breed Cheyenne) begged of me to save his life, and him and the squaw together. I put him in an ambulance with Captain Talburt, who was wounded; sent him to the hospital with Talburt, and told him to stay there until I came; then I took the squaw with a wounded shoulder by the name of Metcalf, and got them safe into camp. I did not go onto the battle-field until next morning. Charley Bent went off with his brother that night with the ponies.
Question. Were any others taken prisoner than those you have mentioned?
Answer. Yes, there was an old squaw with two children. I do not know if they were taken prisoners, but they were found in camp that evening after the battle. There were two little girls and a boy who were taken prisoners. The oldest girl was between twelve and fourteen years old. The next was between ten and eleven, and the boy between eight and nine years of age. One of the old squaw's daughters had a finger shot off.
Question. Was there any shooting in camp after the attack on Black Kettle's camp?
Answer. They were shooting all over the country, in camp and out of camp.
Question. Was any person shot in Colonel Chivington's camp after the battle with the Indians?
Answer. Yes.
Question. State who it was.
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question for the reason that it does not appear that the witness has any knowledge upon the subject-matter of inquiry, while the question assumes that he has such knowledge.
Objection not sustained.)
Answer. It was a half-breed, who went by the name of Jack Smith. John Smith's son. He was sitting in the lodge with me; not more than five or six feet from me just across the lodge. There were from ten to fifteen soldiers came into the lodge at the time, and there was some person came on the outside and called to his father, John Smith. He, the old man, went out, and there was a pistol fired when the old man went out of the lodge. There was a piece of the lodge cut out where the old man went out. There was a pistol fired through this opening and the bullet entered below his right breast. He sprang forward and fell dead, and the lodge scattered, soldiers, squaws, and everything else. I went out myself; as I went out I met a man with a pistol in his hand. He made this remark to me; he said, "I am afraid that damn son of a bitch is not dead, and I will finish him." Says I, "Let him go to rest; he is dead." That is all that occurred at that time. We took him out and laid him out of doors. I do not know what they did with him afterwards.
Question. Who were in the lodge at the time Jack Smith was killed?
Answer. There was a soldier who belongs to the Colorado first and a teamster. I do not know their names, nor the company the soldier belonged to. There were ten or fifteen other soldiers in the tent, but I do not know what regiment or company they belonged to. Some of them belonged to the third Colorado cavalry.
Question. Do you know the name of the man you met who had the pistol?
Answer. No, I do not.
Question. Were any efforts made by the commanding officer to ascertain who killed Jack Smith?
Answer. Not as I know of.
Question. Did you hear any threats made against the life of Jack Smith, previous to his being shot?
Answer. Yes.
Question. What were those threats and by whom made?
Answer. By whom I know not. It was made by soldiers, who said that he should not leave the camp alive.
Question. Where were the wounded taken during the fight?
Answer. They were taken back to a lodge used as a hospital.
Question. In what part of the field was the hospital established for wounded soldiers and officers?
Answer. A little east of north of where we attacked the village?
Question. How early in the fight was the hospital established at the place mentioned?
Answer. I think about three or four hours after the charge and the battery opened. It was after the village was cleared of the Indians.
Question. Where were the Indians at the time the hospital was established?
Answer. They were beyond the village. The main portion of them were south of the village. The Indians were everywhere.
Question. Had the firing ceased in that part of the village at the time and place where the hospital was established?
Answer. Yes.
Question. Have you seen any of the Cheyennes since the day of the attack on Sand creek?
Answer. Yes.
Question. When and where did you see them?
Answer. I saw them between the 9th and 12th of January, on the White Man's fork. I went into their village in the night. The White Man's fork heads in the vicinity of the Smoky Hill. It used to be called the Box Elder by the trappers.
Question. How large a village was it?
Answer. There were about one hundred and thirty or one hundred and forty lodges. They were then travelling north.
Question. Were they all Cheyennes?
Answer. No, they were mixed up with other tribes, half-breed Cheyennes, Kiowas, and Camanche (cq) warriors. There may have been some Arapahoe (cq) lodges among them; most of the lodges were Cheyenne.
Question. Were there any chiefs among them? If so, state who they were.
Answer. There were Leg-in-the-Water, who was then acting as chief, (Black Kettle was not there,) and Little Robe, son of the old war chief who was killed at Sand creek.
Question. State what transpired while you were in the village.
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question, for the reason that it seeks to draw from the witness information which was derived from the Indians, and is therefore hearsay. Furthermore, it is sought by this question to make the proceedings at an unauthorized interview with Indians' testimony, to be considered in this investigation, when none of the parties who may be charged as military offenders were present thereat. Again, the interview between the witness and the Indians occurred after the battle of Sand creek, and therefore it is not a proper subject for investigation under the instructions given the commission.
The commission are instructed to make such investigation as may disclose all the facts connected with the battle of Sand creek, not to inquire concerning the results of that battle.)
Commission was cleared for discussion. Commission adjourned until 9:30 a.m. to-morrow, March 7, 1865.
James Pierson Beckwourth, circa 1860, in Denver, Kansas Territory
TWENTY-THIRD DAY
March 7, 1865.
Commission met pursuant to adjournment. Present, all members and recorder.
Proceedings of yesterday read and approved.
The objections by J. M. Chivington, against obtaining from the witness testimony as to what transpired in the camp of the Indians while he was present, are sustained so far as to rule out the question, and all information referring to the probable results of the affair of Sand creek. But in order to do justice to all parties, and in consequence of not being able to procure the attendance to this commission of the surviving Indians who were attacked while in camp on Sand creek, it becomes necessary to question the witness in reference to statements, admissions, &c (cq), made by the Indians to him (the witness) in reference to their (the Indians) understanding of the arrangement between them and the military authorities at Fort Lyon, and their (the Indians) admissions to the recapture of stock taken by Colonel Chivington from them at Sand creek, receiving it as information essential to the object of this commission, which is to obtain all facts, and do justice to all parties.
Examination of James P. Beckwith by the commission, in presence of J. M. Chivington, continued:
Question. While in the camp of the Indians on White Man's fork, did you have any conversation with them in reference to Sand creek?
Answer. Yes.
Question. What was said?
(J. M. Chivington respectfully objects to the question. The statements of Indians are never received as evidence even when the Indians are personally present, except in cases where it is specially authorized by statute. In other words, it requires an express congressional enactment to render an Indian a competent witness, as in cases of violation of the Indian intercourse laws. The instructions given the commission do not authorize them to receive hearsay testimony from Indians or whites. The latitude given to the commission is as to the facts concerning which evidence may be received, not as to what shall or shall not be considered evidence. The commission may receive evidence as to any fact deemed material, but all evidence received must be such as is recognized by law as evidence. Objection overruled by a majority of the commission.)
Answer. I went into the lodge of Leg-in-the-Water. When I went in he raised up and he said, "Medicine Calf, what have you come here for; have you fetched the white man to finish killing our families again?" I told him I had come to talk to him; call in your council. They came in a short time afterwards, and wanted to know what I had come for. I told them I had come to persuade them to make peace with the whites, as there was not enough of them to fight the whites, as they were as numerous as the leaves of the trees. "We know it," was the general response of the council.
But what do we want to live for? The white man has taken our country, killed all of our game; was not satisfied with that, but killed our wives and children. Now no peace. We want to go and meet our families in the spirit land. We loved the whites until we found out they lied to us, and robbed us of what we had. We have raised the battle-ax until death.
They asked me then why I had come to Sand creek with the soldiers to show them the country. I told them if I had not come the white chief would have hung me, "Go and stay with your white brothers, but we are going to fight till death." I obeyed orders and came back, willing to play quits. There was nothing mentioned about horses or anything that transpired on the battle-field, with the exception of their wives and children.
Question. While in the camp, was anything said in reference to the chief Black Kettle?
Answer. Yes.
Question. What was said?
Answer. That he had gone over to the half-breed Cheyenne village, and Sioux also, to raise the warriors of those two tribes to fight the whites when grass came, (meaning spring).
Questions. You say you are accustomed to the manners and customs of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. State what is the custom of these Indians in their treatment of women and children taken in battle from their enemies.
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question. Objection not sustained by a majority of the commission.)
Answer. The children are treated kindly; the women are generally violated.
Question. Do they often kill, scalp, and otherwise mutilate women or children taken as prisoners by them in battle?
(J. M. Chivington objects to the question. Objection sustained.)
Direct examination of James P. Beckwith closed.
Cross-examination of James P. Beckwith, by J. M. Chivington:
Question. With what company, battalion, and regiment of Colonel Chivington's command were you at the time of the attack on Black Kettle's camp?
Answer. I was with a portion of the third regiment (100-days men.) I could not tell what company or battalion I was with.
Question. Were you under the command of any officer? If so, whom?
Answer. I was under the command of Colonel Chivington and Colonel Shoup; no other officer had command over me.
Question. Did you participate in the charge made by the third regiment on the Indian village of Sand Creek? If so, what position did you occupy in that charge?
Answer. Yes; I charged with the foremost; I was by the side of Colonel Chivington himself for a little ways; his horse was fleeter than mine.
Question. Who made the noise and confusion of which you speak as occurring at the time of the charge?
Answer. Both officers and men, as I heard, with the exception of Colonels Chivington and Shoup. I could hear them occasionally order the men to be steady. This was while I was in hearing of them, which was but a short time.
Question. Could you hear distinctly all that was said and done at the time that the charge was made?
Answer. No.
Question. How far was White Antelope from you at the time he shouted to the commander to stop?
Answer. He was from fifteen to twenty steps when I heard him the first time; he was advancing very fast towards the command.
Question. How many feet was White Antelope from you at the time he shouted to the commander to stop?
Answer. About sixty feet, probably; that is as near as I can judge.
Question. How many feet was White Antelope from the command at the time that he was shot?
Answer. I can't say.
Question. How far did White Antelope advance towards the command after you first saw him, and before he was shot?
nswer. I can't say.
Question. How far did White Antelope advance towards the command after you first saw him, and before he was shot?
Answer. Some three and four paces, and stopped.
Question. Where was he when you first saw him?
Answer. On the outside of the lodges.
Question. How far outside of the lodges?
Answer. I cannot say.
Question. State as nearly as you can.
Answer. I can't, because I don't know; my attention was drawn too far at that time.
Question. How did you recognize him when you first saw him?
Answer. I was intimately acquainted with him.
Question. Do you know of any orders or directions being given by any officer respecting Jack Smith after the battle?
Answer. None.
Question. Do you know of any order being given respecting the lodge in which you say Jack Smith was killed?
Answer. Yes.
Question. What was that order?
Answer. Colonel Shoup himself ordered me to stay there and protect the squaws and John Smith's property; and also sent me a sergeant from some company; I don't know who he was.
Question. How long had Jack Smith been in that ledge at the time you say he was killed?
Answer. He was taken about 10 o'clock in the morning of the day of the battle, and remained in the lodge until early in the morning after sunrise the next day.
Question. Was he or was he not under guard?
Answer. He was not under guard.
Question. Did he remain constantly in the lodge after he fell into the hands of Colonel Chivington's command until he was shot?
Answer. No.
Question. Was the man whom you saw with the pistol after passing out from the lodge an officer or private?
Answer. A private; he had on private's clothing.
Question. How far is it from Denver to the place where you met the Indians on the White Man's fork?
Answer. About eighty-five or ninety miles. It may be a hundred.
Question. When and from where did you start to go there?
Answer. I started from here on the 9th or 10th of the month of January.
Question. Did any one suggest the expediency of going there? If so, who?
Answer. None.
Question. How did you ascertain where you should go to find the Indians?
Answer. Because I am acquainted with the country, and from reports, and what I could hear of the depredations they were doing on the road.
Question. How long were you in making the trip?
Answer. Six days and a half coming and going.
Question. Did you go directly from Denver to the place where you met the Indians on White Man's fork?
Answer. Yes, as straight a course as I could go; I struck the trail six or seven miles above where I found the village.
Question. How long were you in getting there?
Answer. A little over three days.
Question. Where did you hear that they had committed depredations which led you to suspect the Indians were where you found them?
Answer: I heard it in town here, and saw it in the paper.
Question. Where were these depredations committed?
Answer. Down the Platte.
Question. How far down the Platte?
Answer. I don't know; can't say.
Question. What were the depredations of which you were spoken?
Answer. Killing white men and taking their property.
Question. How long before you went out to meet the Indians were these depredations committed?
Answer. I know not. It was an every-day occurrence, from reports.
Question. Are Indians usually found upon White Man's fork, soon after they have committed depredations on the Platte?
Answer. Yes.
Commission adjourned until 2 p. m. this day.
Two p. m.--Commission met pursuant to adjournment. Present, all members and recorder.
Cross-examination of James P. Beckwith by J. M. Chivington, late colonel &c, continued:
Question. Where have you resided since the first of January last?
Answer. With the exception of the trip I made out to the Indians, I have resided here in Denver.
Question. Did any one accompany you on the trip to the White Man's fork?
Answer. No.
Question. Is there any enmity existing between yourself and Colonel Chivington?
Answer. None, so help me God.
Question. Have you not used expressions of hostility towards Colonel Chivington within the six months last past?
Answer. Not to my knowledge.
Question. To what race do you belong--the white, black, or Indian?
(Objection to the question by Lieutenant Colonel Samuel F. Tappan, president of the commission. Objection sustained by the commission.)
Question. Were you a chief among the Crow Indians?
Answer. Yes.
Cross-examination of James P. Beckwith by J. M. Chivington closed.
Question raised by recorder. The commission was closed for discussion.
Commissioned adjourned until 9:30 a. m. to-morrow, March 8, 1865.
Depiction of the Sand Creek Massacre by Cheyenne eyewitness and artist Howling Wolf, circa 1875
After the Hearings
Colonel J. M. Chivington had requested to be relieved of his command of the Military District of Colorado a month after the massacre, often called the Chivington Massacre, in December 1864. Because he was no longer in service, Chivington could not be charged by the U.S. Army with any crimes committed while he was in service. He was never arrested, indicted or charged with any crime, according to the Sand Creek Massacre Foundation.
The War Department established a military commission to investigate the events at Sand Creek. A Special Joint Committee was established to investigate the "present condition of the Indian tribes and their treatment by the civil and military authorities of the United States".
In Congress, The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War condemned Chivington's actions and called for the removal of John Evans as Governor of the Colorado Territory.
United States officials persuaded a handful of Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs to meet on the Little Arkansas River in Kansas and negotiated a new treaty. The government effectively assumed responsibility for the massacre by committing to compensate those who lost property at Sand Creek. While Bent family members were granted lands south of the Arkansas River, the reparations to most other descendants have never been paid out.
The Bent family, specifically George and Robert (sons of trader William Bent and Owl Woman), and Charles (son of William Bent and Yellow Woman, Owl Woman's sister, who William married after his wife's death in keeping with Cheyenne tradition) were intimately tied to the Cheyenne and present at the massacre, according to Special Collections and Archives, Denver Public Library. After his marriage to Owl Woman, the daughter of a respected Cheyenne medicine man, William had become an honorary chief and was deeply involved in peace talks.
Before the massacre, Robert was forced to guide the cavalry to his mother's people, while George and Charles were in the camp. The massacre spurred George into joining the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers, the main force of resistance against the United States.
Eventually, George acted as an interpreter between the United States and the remaining Dog Soldiers, hoping that talking would bring peace. He could see that Cheyenne culture was slipping away. So, George Bent wrote more than 400 letters to George E. Hyde, assistant to anthropologist, George Grinnell, who would publish The Fighting Cheyennes (1915). Grinnell's assistant later published the Life of George Bent Written from His Letters, two of the most important books about Cheyenne history.
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